2025 Midwest Fish & Wildlife Conference

AUTHORS: Jennifer Schultze, Southern Illinois University; Ashley McDonald, Southern Illinois University; Clayton Nielsen, Southern Illinois University

ABSTRACT: Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are an opportunistic and highly adaptable mesopredator that negatively impact several vulnerable avian and reptilian species. Wildlife managers require more information about the efficacy and long-term feasibility of using predator removal to control raccoon populations. We determined the efficacy of raccoon population reduction via trapping on 6 study sites in northern Illinois. Camera traps (n=109) were placed afield during February-August 2022-2024 to monitor raccoon occupancy before, during, and after trapping efforts were performed. During April-June 2022-2024, collaborators removed 680 raccoons to determine the intensity of trapping effort needed to reduce raccoon populations and to estimate pre- and post-trapping abundance of raccoon populations. We ran single-season occupancy models during these 3 temporal periods and multi-season colonization-extinction occupancy models were conducted before and after raccoon removal to determine the efficacy of trapping efforts in the long-term. Single-season occupancy estimates indicated a decrease in occupancy during removal; this reduced occupancy level remained for the duration of the study season. During 2022-2024, multi-season occupancy colonization rates decreased by 43% and extinction rates increased by 13%. In contrast, our control site with no raccoon removal had an increase in colonization by 66% and extinction rates reached nearly 0%. Further, we estimated raccoon abundance using the Leslie depletion method and following trapping, populations declined >32% on each study site. These results suggest that with enough trapping effort at the levels observed in our study, continuous removal programs may be a successful method for reducing and maintaining lower raccoon densities.

AUTHORS:  Yonah Bennett, University of Central Missouri; Dr. Nick Barts, University of Central Missouri

ABSTRACT:  Anthropogenic change casts a heavy shadow on the environment, and the urbanization of natural habitats can increase both the spread of zoonotic diseases and the range of its reservoirs. One such reservoir is the raccoon (Procyon lotor), a synanthrope and common carrier of many zoonotic diseases important to human health (Baylisascaris procyonis, Leptospira interrogans, and Giardia duodenalis). As warmer temperatures and human-driven introductions push raccoons and other wildlife into new environments, humans face an increasing number of zoonotic diseases. The wildlife, in turn, faces density increases, poor body condition, and diet changes. These changes are a global concern, and current studies are driven by the One-Health framework, ensuring the human, wildlife, and environmental aspects of these focal diseases are examined together. Following the One-Health framework allows us to make informed decisions for wildlife management strategies. This project aims to inform such management by conducting disease and diet surveys of raccoons across St. Louis and Kansas City, Missouri along urban-rural transects using latrines to collect feces, soil, and hair samples. Prior studies of B. procyonis prevalence along urban gradients have had mixed findings. Gradients created using a specified variable like building density may better describe the impact of urbanization on it and other zoonotic diseases. Disease prevalence and load will be determined by surveying for B. procyonis in fecal floats and Giardia and Leptospira in qPCR. Diet assessments to correlate raccoon reliance on anthropogenic foods will be done by determining the stable isotopes in collected hair. Reliance on anthropogenic foods may mean a change in predation on intermediate disease hosts and disease prevalence within raccoons. Overall results may highlight how raccoons' synanthropic nature impacts humans and the environment.

AUTHORS: Holly Redmond; Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL
Robin Warne; Prairie Research Institute, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL
Tadao Kishimoto; Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL
Guillaume Bastille-Rousseau; Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL

ABSTRACT: How animals move across a landscape is a result of interactions between internal factors, such as physiology, and external factors, such as environmental conditions. Despite the important implications of these interactions in the face of progressively altered physical and disease landscapes, few studies have examined how immune physiology and movement behaviors interrelate, or the context in which variation in such relationships occurs. In some species, immune condition is shown to be influenced by allocation trade-offs, for example energetically favoring migration success at the cost of immune function. Immune condition itself can also be influential, for example in some species it can reduce cognitive ability and alter social behavior, thereby impacting animal movement. We seek to better understand the dynamics between immune physiology and movement in a heavily managed species: the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus).

To explore these relationships, we will first investigate how three immune-related biomarkers (cortisol, haptoglobin, and natural antibodies) interrelate to characterize immunological profiles for white-tailed deer (n=92) captured in 2023 and 2024 from two free-ranging populations in central and southern Illinois. We will then investigate how deer immunologic profiles relate to their movement across several metric categories (including space use, activity level, and consistency of behavior) and assess the contexts in which intra-individual, inter-individual, and inter-population variation in these relationships occurs. This work will contribute to a more holistic understanding of the dynamics between immune physiology and movement in an economically and ecologically significant species.

AUTHORS: Kristine Cotten, Southern Illinois University Carbondale; Peter Schlichting, Illinois Department of Natural Resources; Daniel Skinner, Illinois Department of Natural Resources; Christopher Jacques, Illinois Department of Natural Resources; Guillaume Bastille-Rousseau, Southern Illinois University Carbondale

ABSTRACT: Chronic wasting disease (CWD) infection among white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) has become increasingly prevalent throughout northern Illinois in recent years, a marked departure from relatively low prevalence rates from its detection in 2003 until 2019. The Illinois Department of Natural Resources (DNR) manages CWD primarily through hunter harvest and agency targeted removals, i.e. sharpshooting. Sharpshooting is currently considered the best technique for removing CWD infected deer. Despite this, little is known about sharpshooting’s impact on deer behavior. The increasing prevalence of CWD in our endemic area highlights the need for a better understanding of the role sharpshooting plays in shaping deer behavior and how we can increase the effectiveness of sharpshooting efforts with limited staff and increasing area of infection. To address this, we deployed 75 trail cameras across several CWD-positive counties in northern Illinois. Cameras were deployed from approximately mid-January to mid-March of 2024 at baited sharpshooting sites and will be redeployed over the same period in 2025. We will use images captured by these cameras to examine the rates of deer vigilance behavior and visitation to baited sharpshooting sites as a function of sharpshooting effort . Additionally, we will investigate environmental variables which may have differential influences on deer behavior and site selection. This information will provide valuable insights on deer behavior in the context of disease management. The increase in CWD prevalence in Illinois suggests a shift in the established patterns of infection, highlighting the need for a better understanding of how sharpshooting impacts deer behavior . This work will address this knowledge gap and aid managers in the continued implementation of sharpshooting as a management tool.

AUTHORS: Erik Holterman, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Kayla Allred, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Tyler Rasmussen, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point

ABSTRACT: Camera traps are a non-invasive wildlife sampling method, offering constant surveillance of multiple locations. Capturing pictures of wildlife provides opportunities for identifying individuals in a population, allowing researchers to collect data on home range size and population dynamics. This project aims to identify individuals which directly affects our ability to estimate population size, connectivity between populations, and help wildlife managers develop conservation plans. Focusing on fishers (Pekania pennanti), our team installed Fisher Monitoring Stations (FMS) throughout the George W. Mead Wildlife Area located in central Wisconsin. FMS are designed to attach to trees, where we expect fisher to climb on, touch, or reach out across a stabilizing bar to interact with bait hanging above the FMS. Our camera traps then take pictures of the ventral surface of fishers to capture markings that help identify individuals within the population. This was the first implementation of FMS, so we are analyzing trap characteristics such as bait type and height of the stabilizing bar in relation to the FMS platform. All pictures taken this field season are in the process of being graded on a numerical scale based on image quality in relation to identifying individuals. We hypothesize that a height of 60 cm and the implementation of beaver meat as bait will yield higher quality pictures than a height of 50 cm and jam as bait. In the future, we hope to continue to test more characteristics of trap design, including additional heights of the stabilizing bars, FMS distance to camera, distance to bait, and improved hair snare design.

AUTHORS: Zack Wilson, University of Wisconsin- Stevens Point; Maddie Hartlaub, University of Wisconsin- Stevens Point; Dr. Shelli Dubay, University of Wisconsin- Stevens Point; Dr. Travis Livieri, Prairie Wildlife Research; Dr. Ben Sedinger, University of Wisconsin- Stevens Point

ABSTRACT: Grasshopper mice (Onychomys leucogaster), deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.) commonly co-occur on grasslands in South Dakota and may be parasitized by Ixodes sculptus and I. kingi tick species. These ticks could serve as bridging vectors for tularemia (Francisella tularensis), a zoonotic bacterial disease, in the grassland ecosystem. Tularemia has caused mortality in prairie dogs, deer mice, and grasshopper mice. Small mammal abundance has been shown to increase on prairie dog complexes. We aim to identify relationships between small mammal densities, prairie dog burrow densities, and tick abundance on hosts in Conata Basin/Badlands National Park, South Dakota. We placed 100 Sherman traps in a 150 x 150 m grid on sites designated as high, medium, and low prairie dog burrow densities. Once mice were trapped, we combed them for 30 seconds and then systematically searched them for ticks. Ectoparasites were counted per individual and placed in ethanol for identification. We hypothesized that the number of small mammals trapped and the abundance of ticks parasitizing them would be positively correlated with prairie dog burrow density. In 2023, we collected 231 ticks on 135 trapped deer and grasshopper mice across two sampling areas in Badlands National Park. In 2024, we expect to find that tick abundance on deer and grasshopper mice will increase with prairie dog burrow density, however, due to allogrooming, we do not expect tick abundance to increase on prairie dogs.

AUTHORS: Jake Meyer, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy; Elizabeth Biro, Washington University in St. Louis; Solny Adalsteinsson, Washington University in St. Louis; Whitney Anthonysamy, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy

ABSTRACT: Cities can provide important habitat, such as parks and other green spaces, for supporting biodiversity. As urban areas continue to grow, it is important to understand how urban green spaces affect species’ distributions and behaviors. Coyotes are a common apex predator found in Missouri, including urban areas, and thus serve an important role in regulating ecosystem dynamics and biodiversity. The purpose of this study was to use presence/absence data collected using camera traps to estimate average coyote detections along an urbanization gradient (rural, suburban, and urban) in St. Louis. Here we report on our preliminary findings from a 4-year (2019-2022) dataset. Our next steps include exploring temporal activity and performing modeling to formally estimate occupancy patterns. Our findings will aid us in understanding how coyotes utilize the city to inform efforts for managing biodiversity in the region.

AUTHORS: Adrienne Cohoon, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Kayla Allred, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Helena Stoflet, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Jena Garceau, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Dutch Holland, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Alyssa Kelnhofer, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Samantha Peterson, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point;
Advisor: Dr. Chris Yahnke, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point

ABSTRACT: Howling is a stimulated response in canids used to distinguish territory. Species of the Canidae family tend to respond to other species via howling. Our primary target species are the gray wolf (Canis Lupus) and the coyote (Canis latrans). In our study, we compare which canid species would respond to each artificial species call/howl we used. We conduct howl surveys at two different sites, Buena Vista Wildlife Area and Mead Wildlife Area in central Wisconsin. There are three transects at Mead and five at Buena Vista. Each field night, we select our transect through a random generator. At separate points along the transect, each point one mile apart, we alternate between a male gray wolf and a male coyote call using the ICOtec Gen 3 Electronic Predator Game Call. At each of these points along the transect, we play the call for 30 seconds and wait two minutes after the call for a response. We call three times at one location facing 0°, 120°, and 240° respectively. At each point we record the date, location, road name, latitude/longitude, time of response, the species that is responding, compass bearing of the response, estimated distance to the origin of the response, number of adults heard, whether we heard pups, and ambient noises. We analyzed our data using a Chi-squared test to determine significant differences in response rates between species.

AUTHORS: Angel Justus, Missouri Western State University; Grace Allen, Missouri Western State University; Walter Bicklein, Missouri Western State University; Cooper Bien, Missouri Western State University; Boaz Evans, Missouri Western State University; Veronica Hendrickson, Missouri Western State University; Zachary Hendrickson, Missouri Western State University; Anna Livers, Missouri Western State University; Emily McClellan, Missouri Western State University; Terence Mercado, Missouri Western State University; Jada Sharp, Missouri Western State University; Autumn Shull, Missouri Western State University; Kyla Spradlin, Missouri Western State University; Carissa Ganong, Missouri Western State University; Cary D. Chevalier, Missouri Western State University.


ABSTRACT: Quantifying mammal abundance, species richness, and diversity is a key aspect of wildlife management. Missouri Western faculty and students collaborated with the Smithsonian Institution and the Snapshot USA project to inventory mammal biodiversity on the MWSU campus using Browning Dark Ops Pro DCI trail cameras. We installed eight game cameras throughout the 143-acre forested natural area on campus and swapped out SD cards weekly for eight weeks each fall (September-November, 2022-2024), ensuring that all cameras were at least 200 m apart. We acquired over 180,000 images and identified mammals to the lowest taxonomic level possible. Photos were uploaded to the Wildlife Insights database as part of the Snapshot USA project and will eventually be available to the public. Here we present data on mammalian species richness and relative abundance from our sites and compare our results to similar studies. This project provides baseline data on mammalian communities in an urban natural area and also illustrates the value of applied learning collaborations between institutions of higher education and national scientific institutions.

AUTHORS: Yoshihiro Yajima, Brown Univeristy; Kim A. Medley, Washington University in St. Louis; Erin O'Connell, Washington University in St. Louis; Vona Kuczynska, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Shelly Colatskie, Missouri Department of Conservation; Elizabeth Biro, Washington University in St. Louis; Solny Adalsteinsson, Washington University in St. Louis



ABSTRACT: Human-driven land-use change is the second most important cause of biodiversity loss worldwide. Species like bats that rely heavily on forest resources to forage and reproduce are impacted by increasingly fragmented habitats. Here, we investigated habitat suitability for federally-endangered Indiana bats (Myotis sodalis) across a 2,000 acre university field station, Tyson Research Center (TRC), in St. Louis County, Missouri. TRC has long been impacted by human development, including encroachment of urban land-use. To understand the current distribution of M. sodalis, we recorded bat echolocation calls using 65 AudioMoths placed in a grid across TRC during June 2023. We processed audio files using Kaleidoscope Pro to classify calls to species and manually vetted all calls classified as Myotis spp. We then used MaxEnt, a presence-only niche-based modeling algorithm, to identify important environmental features for M. sodalis activity and create a habitat suitability map for TRC. By manually vetting over 1000 audio files, we identified 12 M. sodalis presence locations and created a model with 10 environmental variables. We found that level ground and snag stands were the most influential predictors of M. sodalis habitat suitability, which was consistent with mist net and telemetry studies. This result suggests that the species typically use flat openings near dead standing trees as day roosts, potentially to reduce energy expenditure on flight while having adequate access to insect prey. Our results elucidate how M. sodalis use forests surrounded by human development and will help guide future management action to conserve threatened and endangered bats.

AUTHORS: Erin O’Connell, Washington University in St. Louis; Solny Adalsteinsson, Washington University in St. Louis; Whitney Anthonysamy, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy; Beth Biro, Washington University in St. Louis

ABSTRACT: Bats provide ecosystem services as insect predators and nutrient recyclers and are often critical pollinators and seed dispersers. However, bats are in decline across North America due to threats from land use changes, pesticides, disease, invasive species, wind energy, and climate change. As part of the St. Louis Wildlife Project (STLWP), we seek to understand how bat communities are changing over time and in response to urbanization. Our goals for STLWP are to apply this knowledge to influence city planning policy and to spreading awareness about urban bat biodiversity and threats to bats. To monitor bats in St. Louis, we deployed acoustic monitors along an urbanization gradient from the Gateway Arch National Park to Eureka, MO, through the Henry Shaw Ozark Corridor. We recorded bat calls for one month each during spring, summer, and fall in conjunction with St. Louis Wildlife Project monitoring. We then analyzed the recordings using auto-detection software to identify bats to species. We detected ten total species of bats in the greater St. Louis area, including three species of endangered bats: Indiana bats (Myotis sodalist), gray bats (Myotis grisescens), and northern long-eared bats (Myotis septentrionalis). The most commonly detected bats across the transect included big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus) and hoary bats (Lasiurus cinereus). These findings are critical to informing urban management plans, as well as garnering support for habitat restoration efforts.

AUTHORS: Daniel Peacock, University of Nebraska Omaha; Thomas Raad, University of Nebraska Omaha; Amanda Ciurej, US Fish and Wildlife Service; Jeremy White, University of Nebraska Omaha; Mark Porath, US Fish and Wildlife Service; Han Li, University of Nebraska Omaha

ABSTRACT: White-nose syndrome has caused severe declines in the populations of northern long-eared bats (Myotis septentrionalis), little brown bats (Myotis lucifugus), and tri-colored bats (Perimyotis subflavus) in the eastern United States since it was first detected in 2006. However, little is known about how these species were impacted in Nebraska where white-nose syndrome was first detected in the winter of 2016-2017. Before white-nose syndrome was first detected in Nebraska, an assessment of these species was conducted acoustically at 105 sites throughout eastern Nebraska between 2012 and 2014. In 2024 summer, we revisited 72 of the 105 previously surveyed sites and added 41 new sites to assess the impact of white-nose syndrome. We followed the North American Bat Monitoring Program Stationary Survey protocol for a more robust dataset. Our preliminary results from the first 60 sites were manually vetted for false positive detections and showed presence of tri-colored bats and little brown bats at approximately 40% of sites. However, only one out of 60 sites had northern long-eared bat detections. We will continue manually vetting for the remaining sites and to account for both false negative and false positive detections. From this data we will construct species distribution models before and after white-nose syndrome to examine how the disease has impacted the distributions of the three species. These distribution models will be used to generate distribution maps that will be used to determine each species’ level of decline, where remnant populations might be, and what kinds of habitats support these remnant populations. Assessment of the impact of white-nose syndrome on these three species will provide insights on how to prioritize key habitat protection to ensure long-term bat conservation in the Great Plains.

AUTHORS: Thomas Raad, University of Nebraska Omaha; Michaela Sanford, University of Nebraska Omaha Department of Biology; Daniel Peacock, University of Nebraska Omaha Department of Biology; Shayda Azadmanesh, University of Nebraska Omaha Department of Biology; Jeremy White, University of Nebraska Omaha Department of Biology; Guoqing Lu, University of Nebraska Omaha Department of Biology; Han Li, University of Nebraska Omaha Department of Biology

ABSTRACT: All bat species of greatest conservation need in the Midwest are nocturnal and cryptic. Traditional capture-based methods for detecting bats become challenging as populations experience drastic declines. With recent technological advancements, acoustic monitoring has become a common method for detecting these species. However, similarities in bat calls across species can make it challenging to confirm their presence. To address this challenge, it is important to explore additional species detection methods that complement capture and acoustic techniques. Bat guano samples are abundant and easy to collect in the field and extracting and sequencing host DNA from fecal samples for species identification has proven effective. Additionally, bat DNA has been collected and sequenced from roost surfaces, water, and soil, allowing species detection directly from the environments where they reside. Traditional fecal and environmental DNA sequencing methods often require polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification with species-specific primers. However, recent advances in genomic technology have introduced nanopore sequencing, which, through nanopore adaptive sampling algorithms, allows for selective sequencing of specified genomic regions. This method uses a user-defined reference file during sequencing to target DNA sequences of interest, eliminating the need for PCR amplification and enabling the generation of long DNA reads for further assembly. Moreover, it allows for portable, in-field sequencing. Mammalian mitochondrial DNA, with its high copy numbers in cells, is suitable for nanopore adaptive sampling. In this project, we explore the application of nanopore adaptive sampling for bat species identification. We opportunistically collected bat guano samples, verified species through morphological examination during capture, and are currently processing fecal samples in the lab. We will present the success rate of species identification from fecal DNA, as well as from environmental DNA collected at known bat roosts.

AUTHORS: Sarah Slayton, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; Henry Adams, Urban Wildlife Institute, Lincoln Park Zoo; Michael Ward, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; Michael Avara, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; Brad Semel, Illinois Department of Natural Resources

ABSTRACT: Black-crowned Night-herons (BCNH) (Nycticorax nycticorax) are a colonial wading bird facing notable declines in the Great Lakes region of the U.S. due to wetland habitat loss and degradation. Although BCNH are globally distributed, they are a special-status species in 11 states including Illinois, where the species has been listed as endangered since 1977. The last major rookery in the state is located at the Lincoln Park Zoo (LPZ) near downtown Chicago. Despite the inherent risks associated with nesting in an urban center the colony appears to be flourishing, with over 300 pairs of birds fledging over 400 chicks in 2024. However, little research has been conducted on how birds are acquiring resources and utilizing city habitat to cope with the environmental pressures posed by urban living. BCNH’s cryptic nature and nocturnal lifestyle have made them challenging to study solely using traditional field methods, making them ideal to study using advanced tracking technologies. During the 2023 and 2024 breeding seasons, we deployed 16 GPS/GSM transmitters on BCNH from this colony to identify critical foraging grounds in the Chicago area. So far, these transmitters have illuminated that birds are utilizing a wide variety of natural and manmade waterbodies throughout the breeding season, some of which are hydrologically influenced by Lake Michigan while others are managed by state and local agencies. They have also revealed unexpected patterns in post-breeding movements, migration routes, and wintering ground habitat use. These insights will help inform conservation efforts for this species in Illinois, and beyond.

AUTHORS: Haley Holiman, Southern Illinois University; Brent. S. Pease, Southern Illinois University

ABSTRACT: Recently, the interest in and use of passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) to assess animal populations has continued to grow in popularity. Data collected from PAM has produced reliable estimates of species occurrence but estimating density remains challenging. For example, accurately estimating distance to individuals, double-counting, and isolating focal species’ calls in diverse areas can hinder density estimation. Eastern whip-poor-wills (Antrostromus vociferus) are nocturnal aerial insectivores with distinct vocalizations and may be ideal candidates for density estimation using PAM, however, little guidance exists for sampling protocols and analytical frameworks. Here we present results from a density estimation pilot study in Morgan-Monroe and Yellowwood State Forests, Indiana, USA that paired PAM with point count surveys. From May – July 2022, we deployed acoustic recording units and conducted nocturnal point count surveys for whip-poor-wills across different forest management plots. Our objectives were to evaluate four analytical frameworks for estimating density of whip-poor-wills: distance sampling and binomial n-mixture models using time-to-detection from PAM and point counts. Preliminary results suggest that ARUs may provide comparable estimates of nightjar density to traditional point counts, and density estimates appear consistent across varying silvicultural management techniques. Future work to be conducted in 2025-2026 includes expanding the study area, optimizing ARU sampling protocols for density estimation of nightjars, and relating forest management practices to nightjar abundance.

AUTHORS: Joshua Angell, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign;
Jeffrey Foster, Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University;
Aron Katz, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ERDC-CERL & Department of Entomology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign;
Jinelle Sperry, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ERDC-CERL & Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

ABSTRACT: Grassland bird populations are in steeper decline than any other avian group in North America. These declines are primarily caused by the loss of suitable habitat and degradation in the quality of remaining habitat. As such, it is critical to understand how different factors of current grassland habitats impact the birds within them. For nesting birds, one of the most important aspects of their breeding habitat is its ability to provide suitable food resources for their young in the nest. We utilized DNA metabarcoding to determine the diets that have been provisioned to grasshopper sparrow nestlings with fecal samples collected at Fort McCoy, WI. Orthoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hemiptera were the most prevalent arthropod orders detected across all samples, while Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera were provisioned proportionally less compared to environmental availability. Additionally, we examined spatial and temporal trends of provisioned diet to explore what influences the foraging ecology of grasshopper sparrows. This study provides insights into how grassland habitats support breeding birds and evaluates fecal DNA metabarcoding as a potential tool to assess habitat quality for threatened and endangered species in the future.

AUTHORS: 
Benjamin W. Tjepkes, University of Missouri;
Grant P. Elliott, University of Missouri;
Clayton F. Blodgett, University of Missouri;
Thomas W. Bonnot, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

ABSTRACT:  Many forest communities across the central hardwoods ecoregion of the United States are experiencing shifts from oak dominance to later successional species after anthropogenic alternations to historical disturbance regimes. This transition, amidst unprecedented climatic variability, casts uncertainty on the future of resident and migratory forest passerines that depend on this region for access to high-quality breeding habitat. Land surface phenology, the timing of annual growth cycles measured from remote sensing platforms, offers a potential proxy for forest ecosystem response to changing bioclimatic conditions that can be used for landscape-based wildlife conservation planning. This research explores how regional forest phenology patterns relate to demographic trends in avian communities across the Central Hardwoods Bird Conservation Region under anthropogenic climate change to assess the utility of phenology-informed models in predicting wildlife habitat suitability at regional scales. We used 40 years of Landsat multispectral imagery to model spatially explicit estimates of phenological transition dates based on gap-filled Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) values, gridded climate data, and Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) data to represent the temporal progression of passerine habitat within a season while accounting for species-specific responses. These climate-mediated phenological metrics will serve as inputs for hierarchical Bayesian avian community models using relative abundance trends from U.S. Breeding Bird Survey (BBS) point counts within the region. We will then be projecting any bird-phenology relationships through the year 2100, using a range of future climate scenarios and forest composition projections. This work will extend existing bird research in the central hardwoods to better understand climatic drivers of forest phenology and whether these patterns relate to diachronic bird abundance trends. The findings of this research will offer insights for conservation initiatives focused on preserving avian diversity by implementing resilient forest management practices informed by climate-based spatial prioritization at landscape scales.

AUTHORS:  Ruby Valadez, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Josiah Gritter, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Elizabeth Peters, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point

ABSTRACT:  The Northern Saw-whet Owl (Aegolius acadicus) (NSWO) is a mesopredator commonly found within upland ecosystems across North America. NSWO’s migrate in the fall from September to December, peaking around mid-October, making them relatively abundant in central Wisconsin during this time. Our project began in 2007 and continues to operate at Sandhill Wildlife Area in Babcock, WI, and we have captured over 1,300 NSWOs. These owls are captured using call-playback devices and mist nets. The birds are banded using USGS aluminum leg bands, contributing to national banding data on Northern Saw-whet Owls. Wing and tail chords, weight, age, and sex of birds are recorded with each capture. Our project has previously focused on studying migration patterns and we are curious how migration timing has changed over time. We will use our historic banding data to analyze the timing of migration from year to year and determine if migration is occurring earlier or later. We will also investigate if there has been a shift in the pattern of irruption, which typically occurs every four years.

AUTHORS:  Ashley Fitch, Ball State University; Emily Peterson, Ball State University; Kamal Islam, Ball State University.

ABSTRACT:  Bird-window collisions are a significant source of avian mortality in North America, accounting for 2-9% of bird deaths, with college campuses contributing to 44-56% of these fatalities. This study assesses bird-window strike mortality on the Ball State University campus, where buildings with substantial window surfaces pose risks to migrating birds. Over four academic semesters (September-November 2022 and 2023, February-May 2023 and 2024), five campus buildings were monitored to identify what windows had the highest fatality and the species that were most affected. Data was collected via visual checks of the perimeters of the windows during weekdays. A total of 84 birds were documented, comprising 26 different species and 9 different families. The most collected family was Parulidae, with 20.2%, and the most collected species was Archilochus colubris, with 10.7%. One of our buildings in particular encompassed 50.0% of all species. The study highlighted that buildings with larger and more reflective windows resulted in higher mortality rates. To mitigate these collisions, successful strategies employed at institutions like Duke University and the University of Utah include Feather Friendly vinyl stickers, fritted glass, and ORNILUX UV glass, which achieved up to 84% reductions in collisions. This research serves as a follow-up to previous data collection efforts, aiming to inform architectural practices and establish guidelines for existing and future buildings on campus to enhance bird safety. By promoting bird-friendly designs, Ball State University can contribute to the preservation of avian populations in urban settings.

AUTHORS: Adrianna Yoder, University of Missouri St. Louis; Anastasia Rahlin, Illinois Natural History Survey – Prairie Research Institute; Jalene LaMontagne, University of Missouri St. Louis

ABSTRACT: Loss of habitat is contributing to avifauna decline, including Red-headed Woodpeckers (Melanerpes erythrocephalus) that were historically widespread across eastern-central North America. In northeastern Illinois, Red-headed Woodpeckers are facultative migrators, where some will overwinter while others migrate south. In the winter, Red-headed Woodpeckers switch their diet from insects to tree hard mast, like acorns. However, oak reproduction is spatiotemporally variable, and therefore, acorn quantity likely influences their ability to overwinter by altering food availability. Our objective was to compare Red-headed Woodpecker local habitat use and selection between summer breeding-only tree cavities and those used year-round. In summer 2023, we located Red-headed Woodpecker tree cavities and measured habitat characteristics at four scales: cavity, cavity-tree, surrounding habitat, and territory, which included performing acorn counts. In winter 2023-2024, we monitored the same cavities with camera traps to determine their winter presence. For year-round cavities, the key habitat characteristic of continued cavity use into the winter was high acorn quantity, particularly of the red oak group. This requirement for winter use contrasts with summer breeding cavity selection which typically relies on open canopy, and high decay and diameter of the cavity-tree. Our results suggest that at broad scales, acorn production could also explain regional differences seen in Red-headed Woodpecker distributions which we are currently investigating using eBird data and long-term acorn counts. Our research highlights the importance of oaks and understanding oak reproduction in creating habitats that can sustain Red-headed Woodpeckers year-round.

AUTHORS: Cy Marchese1, Caroline Skidmore1, Dave Haukos2, Dan Sullins2,

1Kansas State University Fish and Wildlife Cooperative Research Unit, Kansas State University

2 United States Geological Survey, Kansas Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit, Kansas State University


ABSTRACT: In Kansas, a decline in Wild Turkey (Meleagris gallopavo) reproductive success has been observed, potentially reflecting broader population trends of this important game species. Factors such as predation, starvation, and hunting pressure create complex interactions that influence gamebird survival and reproduction, with varying effects among differing landscapes. To sustain or grow wild turkey populations, adequate poult survival is essential. Despite the importance of poult survival, a critical information gap remains regarding their diets in the Great Plains region. Previous studies, which relied on methods such as crop and fecal dissection are limited, invasive, and may introduce biased detection of soft-bodied prey items. Our study aims to address this gap by comparing the species richness and evenness of arthropods in the diets of wild turkey brood-rearing hens and their poults among three distinct regions and multiple cover types in Kansas. We collected fecal samples (n=246) from GPS-tracked wild turkey hens and their poults during the brood-rearing season (April–July) and used DNA metabarcoding to identify arthropod and plant taxa consumed. We grouped the samples by ecotype (grassland, cropland, woodland, shrubland) based on the 48-hour home ranges in which fecals were collected, linking diet composition to specific foraging areas. Preliminary analyses indicated that the top three arthropod orders consumed included Orthoptera, Hemiptera, and Lepidoptera, while the top three plant orders were Poales, Brassicales, and Asterales. The total number of exact sequence variants (ESVs), which represent unique DNA sequences used to identify different species or taxa, was 2,153 for arthropods and 25 for plants. These findings highlight the importance of maintaining arthropod diversity across the landscape to support the dietary needs of wild turkey poults. Management strategies that promote the diversity and abundance of arthropods are important when working to enhance turkey populations throughout Kansas.

AUTHORS: Mirabai Moseley (presenter), Purdue University Fort Wayne; Dr. Bruce Kingsbury, Purdue University Fort Wayne

ABSTRACT: Habitat fragmentation has been found to reduce biodiversity by up to 75%. Reptiles are predicted to be especially sensitive to fragmentation. Blanding’s Turtles are experiencing a decline across most of their range due to habitat loss and fragmentation. Maintaining landscapes of connected wetlands and upland nesting habitat is crucial for Blanding’s Turtle survival. In this study, we are investigating the movement of Blanding’s Turtles across a mixed landscape of high-quality habitat and developed land in Northern Michigan. I am attaching GPS data loggers to Blanding’s Turtles to gather movement and habitat use data, with the intent to identify any trends in corridors used that may be useful in Blanding’s Turtle conservation, and to identify corridors and barriers to movement at my study site for management purposes. I will create a resistance surface based on turtle habitat use that will be used to map linkages between core wetland habitats via circuit theory.

AUTHORS: Grace Allen, Missouri Western State University; Terence Mercado, Missouri Western State University; Emily McClellan, Missouri Western State University; Falcon Turner, Missouri Western State University; Mark Mills, Missouri Western State University; Darrin Welchert, US Fish & Wildlife Service


ABSTRACT: The Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingii) is listed as a species of concern or state listed (Endangered or Threatened) in every state where it occurs. In Missouri, E. blandingii is a state-endangered and is only known to occur at three locations in the state. Loess Bluffs National Wildlife Refuge has documented less than 20 individuals since they were first observed in 1984. We initiated a study of this turtle’s spatial ecology using radio telemetry because of this species' rarity, status, and intensive wetland management that occurs in the study area. The objective of this study was to monitor what type of habitat E. blandingii inhabited, including dominant vegetation type, water depth, water temperature, home range, daily movement, wetland management, and responses to overall weather patterns.

AUTHORS: Neil Boyles, Wittenberg University; Lily Bonar, Wittenberg University; Tori Hinkle, Wittenberg University; Richard Phillips, Wittenberg University

ABSTRACT: Spotted turtles (Clemmys guttata) are a small elusive species of freshwater turtle that lives in wetlands across the Eastern United States. Clark County, Ohio sits on the edge of the turtles’ Midwestern range and their populations there are small with little known about these populations’ current status. We conducted mark-recapture surveys at two sites known to hold turtles using the standardized Regional Spotted Turtle Assessment Protocol. Surveyed populations were compared to healthy known populations from the literature. When compared to the species mean, the surveyed turtles were significantly smaller than expected in five out of eight measurements. The age ratios were different from what is expected in a healthy, stable population as well as from well studied populations using similar survey techniques with no hatchling turtles being surveyed at either site. Since the surveyed populations’ age ratios are different from a theoretical healthy population, as well as from other populations surveyed using similar techniques represented in literature, this could suggest there is a true difference from a healthy population that cannot simply be chalked up to bias in survey technique. Though, there is likely bias in hoop net traps towards adult turtles as juveniles and hatchlings are underrepresented in almost every survey using them. The small sizes of the turtles could be of interest from a genetic standpoint since the mean sizes are small in the region which could indicate genetic drift having a substantial effect on these turtles. There is some interplay in the results since the aging metric is based on plastron size. Our turtles are shown to be smaller than average and as a result their ages are likely underestimated which in turn means some turtles labeled as juvenile could be adults since that distinction is made by age.

AUTHORS: Shayne Harris, Wittenberg University; Neil Boyles, Wittenberg University; Richard Phillips, Wittenberg University

ABSTRACT: Spotted turtle (Clemmys guttata) populations in the Midwest are of conservation concern. At the southern edge of their Midwestern distribution, spotted turtle populations are closely tied to disjunct fen environments in southwestern Ohio. We examine historical populations of spotted turtles in the context of more recent survey efforts. We further evaluate current populations based on recent surveys and identify recent sightings to steer further sampling efforts. Current spotted turtle surveys in southwest Ohio suggest reduced populations at former strongholds. Using ArcGIS, we evaluate potential sites in need of further surveying based on recent sightings. Finally, we evaluate population viability of current populations based on several years of monitoring. Here we present data to guide further survey efforts and assist managers in conserving currently known populations. The compilation of historic, current, and future spotted turtle locations in southwest Ohio will provide a framework for understanding the distribution and population status of spotted turtle populations in southwestern Ohio.

AUTHORS:  Emily Sweet, Missouri Western State University; Andrew Byler, Missouri Western State University; Jared Kelly, Missouri Western State University; Tadyn Shaffer, Missouri Western State University; Mark S. Mills, Missouri Western State University


ABSTRACT:  Long-term studies of turtle populations that live in ponds or wetlands often fit a metapopulation model, with turtles moving among ponds and recolonizing ponds or wetlands after drying events. However, few studies have examined turtle metapopulation dynamics in urban environments, and we are unaware of any long-term studies of urban turtle metapopulations. Faculty and students at Missouri Western State University have studied turtle populations on campus since 2009 with over 850 captures of five native species and three non-native subspecies. Missouri Western State University is located in Saint Joseph, Missouri and is surrounded by urban areas (e.g., residential, retail, and industry). This long-term study consisted of capturing and marking turtles and recording their movements among nine ponds on campus and three ponds adjacent to campus. This presentation will focus on the movements of the most common species on campus: Chelydra serpentina, Trachemys scripta, and Chrysemys picta. Over the past 15 years we have documented 77 turtles moving among the campus ponds and two turtles moving on or off campus. A male painted turtle moved off campus to a pond near Mosaic Hospital, covering a straight-line distance of 1,430 meters over two years. Another painted turtle moved from an off-campus pond to a campus pond, traveling 1,493 meters over 20 days. Overall, we found no significant differences among distance traveled among the three species; however, male painted turtles traveled significantly longer distances (mean±SE, 428±98m, N=15) than females (172±19 m, N=19; P=0.003). The results of this long-term study are important in the context of documenting the movement patterns of animals within an area, but also in and out of that area, particularly in an urban habitat.

AUTHORS: Emily Buege Donovan, Southern Illinois University; Stephen Blake, Charles Darwin Foundation, Saint Louis University, Max Planck institute of Animal Behavior; Sharon L. Deem, Charles Darwin Foundation, Saint Louis Zoo; Ainoa Nieto-Claudin, Charles Darwin Foundation, Saint Louis Zoo; Patrick Moldowan, Charles Darwin Foundation; Freddy Cabrera, Charles Darwin Foundation; Cristian Peñafiel, Charles Darwin Foundation; Guillaume Bastille Rousseau, Southern Illinois University

ABSTRACT: Chelonians are among the most rapidly declining vertebrate groups due to habitat destruction and overexploitation by humans. Information pertaining to when, where, and how often tortoises nest and how nesting behavior responds to environmental variation is useful in developing conservation or remediation plans. However, direct observation of nesting behavior in wild populations can be logistically difficult. We sought to address knowledge gaps in the temporal and spatial patterns of nesting by Galapagos giant tortoises using GPS and triaxial accelerometer data. We applied a Random Forest classification algorithm to historical data from 54 individual Galapagos tortoises across four species from three islands. The algorithm categorized activity as either nesting or non-nesting, ultimately identifying approximately 150 nests between 2010 and 2023. Together with additional field-validated nesting behavior, our total data set consisted of over 250 nesting events. A minimum of 40 individuals nested in multiple years, allowing for year-over-year comparisons in reproductive phenology. We found variation in the timing of nesting both between and within species. In examining spatial patterns, we found that some individuals are highly philopatric, while others displayed more variation in nest site selection. These data provide insights into variation of nesting behavior in vulnerable and critically endangered Galapagos tortoises which can inform conservation strategies and management efforts to protect nests from invasive predators and consider mitigation strategies under climate change. Our approach could also help in addressing these and other conservation challenges in other systems with broad global relevance for threatened chelonians.

AUTHORS: Claire Sullivan, Wittenberg University; Dr.Matthew Godfrey, Duke University; Dr.Richard Phillips, Wittenberg University

ABSTRACT: Cape Lookout National Shoreline is a common area for marine turtles to nest in North Carolina. This study focuses on how Loggerhead (Caretta caretta) in situ nest incubation duration has changed over time from 2007 to 2023. Understanding the changes in incubation leads to the further question of estimating the sex ratio for marine sea turtles. The sex of marine turtles is determined by temperature; to estimate the sex ratio of sea turtles, both incubation duration and temperatures are applied. Regarding the temperature-dependent sex determination of Loggerheads, we analyze the changes in incubation duration on a seasonal and annual scale and how they correlate to annual and seasonal temperature changes. Nesting season begins in May and concludes in August. To account for seasonal temperature increases, data were divided into half-months. We hypothesize that as the nesting season progresses and the temperatures increase, the incubation duration of a clutch will decrease. July's first half month (1H) recorded the lowest averages in incubation duration (59.94± 5.641 days and 54.66± 3.478 days, respectively) for 2007-2009 as well as 2023. After assessing changes in half-months from 2007 to 2009 and 2023, an assessment of the annual changes from 2007 to 2009 and 2023 is made. Here, we show an average decrease in incubation duration from 2007-2009 to 2023 by 3.828 ± 2.39 days. Understanding the correlation between incubation duration and temperature and how they change both seasonally and annually may contribute to the understanding of the changing sex ratios for Loggerhead clutches that inhabit the Cape Lookout National Shoreline. Further questions on how sea turtles are affected by climate may involve changes in arrival time for nesting mothers.

AUTHORS: Arya J. Sanjar, Southern Illinois University; Brent S. Pease, Southern Illinois University; Michael V. Cove, North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences

ABSTRACT: Invasive predators have caused extinctions on islands globally and remain a key threat in many ecosystems worldwide. Within the Florida Keys, USA, mammal populations are declining, which can be attributed in part to the presence of invasive Burmese pythons (Python bivattatus) that expanded from Everglades National Park in the 2000s. However, due partially to the species' elusive nature, Burmese python population size is unknown and has not been conclusively linked to mammal population declines as relatively few have successfully monitored the species’ impact, suggesting alternative approaches to the problem are needed. Here, we tested an indirect route to estimating Burmese python impact on mammals in the Florida Keys by radio-collaring Virginia opossums (Didelphis virginiana) - an important food source for pythons in the Keys - and assessing cause-specific mortality in Key Largo, FL. Between May 2023 – Sept 2024. In total, 3,307 nights of trapping effort resulted in 148 collared opossums across the study area. Subsequent VHF monitoring of collared opossums documented 90 mortalities. Overall, 23% (21 individuals) of mortalities were due to vehicle strikes, 17% by Burmese pythons, and 2% by coyotes. 57% of mortalities were either apparent monitoring-related mortalities (5%) or unable to be attributed to a single factor. As a result of our indirect monitoring, to date, 10 individual pythons were removed from the population in Key Largo. These results suggest that monitoring key prey species may be a viable option for indirectly assessing a top, invasive predator’s impact on mammal populations. Additionally, our results indicate that python predation is a notable contributor to opossum mortality, suggesting potential for additive mortality on mammal communities in the region. Future work involves testing this method in various habitats throughout South Florida to assess its viability outside the Florida Keys.

AUTHORS: Benjamin C. Jellen, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy in St. Louis; Brittany I. Neier, Federal Reserve

ABSTRACT: Though reptiles are largely eurythermic, those residing in temperate latitudes face large daily, and even greater seasonal, temperature fluctuations complicating thermoregulatory efforts. They must therefore employ strategies to avoid reaching critical thermal minimums and maximums for large portions of the calendar year. Such tactics include shuttling between microhabitats, exposure to the elements, and utilizing the various physical qualities of retreats and refuges with many species becoming fossorial during the overwintering period. Though data exists regarding the thermal ecology of temperate zone snakes during the activity period, far less is known concerning their operative body temperature (OBT) during the overwintering period and factors influencing ingress, emergence, and egress. We implanted free-ranging A. contortrix with temperature-sensitive radio transmitters and re-located individuals daily throughout the activity period (April - October) and three times weekly during the overwintering period (November - March) from 2018 - 2023. We recorded the shaded air (SAT) and surface substrate temperatures for each encounter as well as acquired data from a nearby weather station for the substrate temperature at depths of 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 m. Though A. contortrix maintained a mean OBT of 10.6°C during the overwintering period, they experienced their lowest mean OBT in February (8.6°C). The peak emergence from overwintering coincided with the first week in April with a mean SAT of 19.4°C. However, this week was also the only week in which the mean substrate temperatures at depths of 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 m varied by only 0.5°C (9.9 - 10.4°C) presenting an almost uniform subterranean thermal gradient for these depths and a potential cue for emergence. Though snakes made large daily linear ingress movements (x > 100m) on the day immediately following a considerable SAT drop (typically ~ 10°C), no such cues were detected during the egress period.

AUTHORS: Zach Pfeiffer, University of Missouri-St. Louis; Becky Hansis-O'Neill, University of Missouri-St. Louis; Dr. Aimee Dunlap, University of Missouri-St. Louis

ABSTRACT: Missouri glades are home to a variety of herpetofauna and one species of tarantula: Aphonopelma hentzi (Texas brown tarantula). These animals traverse through their environment very differently. Herpetofauna tend to travel in search of food, while tarantulas are usually restricted to foraging in areas very close to their burrows. Due to this contrast, and because of potential predator-prey relationships, I wanted to see if there was a pattern in the distances between these two groupings. To do this I conducted a location survey to determine how far each individual was from the nearest spider. After analyzing the data, it was discovered that the further someone was from a tarantula, the more likely they were to find herpetofauna. This indicates that there is a potential avoidance between herpetofauna and tarantulas.

AUTHORS: Solny Adalsteinsson, Washington University in St. Louis; Whitney Anthonysamy, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy; Elizabeth Biro, Washington Univeristy in St. Louis

ABSTRACT: The St. Louis Wildlife Project was established in 2018 as a collaboration between biologists at the University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy in St. Louis and Tyson Research Center at Washington University in St. Louis. St. Louis serves as a partner city in the Urban Wildlife Information Network, an initiative based at the Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago, whose purpose is to document and study urban wildlife around the world. One of the greatest threats to biodiversity is urbanization and metropolitan areas such as St. Louis can play an important role in maintaining biodiversity. Available habitat patches or green spaces can support species and protect diversity in urban areas. Further, understanding how wildlife utilize these habitats and interact with each other and humans in an urban environment is essential for minimizing human-wildlife conflict. By studying how unique features of the St. Louis landscape—including rivers and parks—affect diversity and abundance of wildlife in the metro region, we can identify important elements that promote biodiversity and the coexistence of humans and wildlife. These elements can be incorporated into sustainable design and planning for St. Louis, while also informing our broader understanding of urban ecology and how best to conserve biodiversity through data-driven urban planning and development worldwide. This presentation will be an overview of the efforts of the St. Louis Wildlife Project to document wildlife presence and behavior in St. Louis.

AUTHORS: Whitney Anthonysamy, University of Health Sciences and Pharmacy; Elizabeth Biro, Washington University in St. Louis; Solny Adalsteinsson, Washington University in St. Louis

ABSTRACT: As tick-borne diseases (TBD) are a growing public health problem in the United States, Missouri faces an increase in tick populations and their associated pathogens. Geographic range expansion and increased abundance of many tick species, including the lone star tick, are attributed to human landscape disturbance, increases in host species such as white-tailed deer, and climate change. The lone star tick, an aggressive biter and a vector for many human pathogens, is widely distributed across the eastern half of the United States and abundant throughout the state of Missouri. Although increased health risks are apparent, Missouri lacks a statewide TBD surveillance program, creating an opportunity to investigate pathogen prevalence. In this study, we present preliminary results from screening adult and nymphal lone star ticks collected in St. Louis County for the presence of bacterial pathogens, including Ehrlichia sp. This research will provide valuable data on TBD prevalence in St. Louis County and establish protocols for expanding surveillance efforts across Missouri.

AUTHORS: Tim Angelo A. Lopez, Becky Hansis-O'Neil, Aimee S. Dunlap

ABSTRACT: Tarantulas (Theraposidae) are predatory arachnids that can help control populations of herbivorous arthropods. We have been monitoring populations of the Missouri brown tarantula (Aphonopelma hentzi) in Missouri glades for three seasons and have questions about their welfare during these surveys. Unlike mammals, arthropods are not extensively researched and there only a few known facts about measuring their welfare. Managing stress for wild animals during field surveys is important for reducing the potential negative impacts of research. In mammals, increased heart rate is positively correlated with negative stress and eustress. Using the same logic, we hypothesized that heart rate could be used as a measurement of stress in wild tarantulas. To answer the question of whether heart rate would be a good measurement of stress in wild tarantulas we measured environmental factors that could significantly affect heart rate: body size, body surface temperature, and how long researchers interacted with the tarantula while trying to get them out of their burrows. Alongside the data gathered with these factors, we measured their heart rates using a veterinary doppler flow detector. We predicted that warmer temperatures, smaller animals, and more interaction would be positively associated with heart rate, with interaction time as the most predictive factor.